SCIENCE JOURNAL 2018

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S omerset C ollege J ournal of S cientific I ssues

Y ear 10 S cience

V olume 2, I ssue 2 J uly , 2018

Journal of Scienctific Issues, July 2018 CONTENTS Volume 2, Issue 2 AWord from the Headmaster Mr Craig Bassingthwaighte Foreword Mrs Christine Wylie – Head of Science Smoking Marijuana - Is it Harmless?

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Mohnish Chand Every K Over is a Killer

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Jenna Goldie Behind the Marijuana Smoke Screen

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James Guy Speeding Kills

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Marcus Ibsen Do We Need So Much Speed?

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Anthony McKenna Superheavy Elements - Are They Worth it?

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Georgia McNamara The Implications of Marijuana Stevie Olarenshaw Superheavy or Unnecessary

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Georgina Powell Superheavy Elements are so Unstable That There Is No Point Trying to Synthesis New Elements Joanne Ryu 38

A W ord from the H eadmaster

The articles presented in this journal represent the best of those investigative research projects prepared by all students in Year 10 as part of their Science studies. The opportunity for students to throw themselves into the excitement of research is an example of how the philosophies of the International Baccalaureate Middle Years Programme have enriched the learning experience for our students. Integral to the MYP are the ideas of lifelong learning, understanding of the world and communication. The preparation of these research articles provides students with an opportunity to explore, investigate, debate, analyse and reflect on topics and issues raised in Sciences; developing skills and encouraging an interest in and understanding of the value of scientific research. Somerset College has an outstanding record of achievement in Sciences, and in this jounral we have another example of the excellence of which we are justifably proud. I would like to congratulate all the students in Year 10 on their articles, acknowledge the leadership of their teachers and Mrs Christine Wylie, our Head of Science, and commend this journal to you as an informative resource for our students and their peers. Craig Bassingthwaighte Headmaster F oreword With inquiry at the core, the Middle Years Programme Sciences framework aims to guide students to independently and collaboratively investigate issues through research, observation and experimentation. The MYP Sciences curriculum must explore the connections between science and everyday life. As they investigate real examples of science applica- tions, students will discover the tensions and dependencies between science and morality, ethics, culture, economics, politics, and the environment. Scientific inquiry also fosters critical and creative thinking about research and design, as well as the identification of assumptions and alternative explanations. Students should learn to appreciate and respect the ideas of others, gain good ethical-reasoning skills and further develop their sense of responsibility as members of local and global communities. (International Baccalaureate Sciences Guide). 2018 is a land-mark year for Year 10 Science students at Somerset College. Students have been given the opportunity to choose to study each individual Science subject (or all three) for the whole year. This year’s Year 10 students were challenged to research and present relevant scientific information about the science or technology; explain how science is applied and how it may be used in a local or global context to address the problem or issue arising from the technology; discuss the effectiveness of science and its application in solving the problem or issue; discuss and evaluate the implications of the use of science interacting with at least two of the following factors: moral, ethical, social, economic, political, cultural or environmental. This collection of ‘unedited’ articles which appear in this edition of the Somerset College Journal of Scientific Issues were all short listed from articles written by all Year 10 students who were required to submit an article on an informed, international debate which addressed one of the following: the impact of new genetic technologies on society and environment, the impact of chemical technologies on society and environment or the impact of physics and technology on society and environment. I would like to thank the inspirational Year 10 teachers, Mrs Elly Lynch, Mr Andrew Hawtin, Ms Jacinta Hyman, Mrs Sally Leslie, Ms Lisa Connell, Mr Matt McLaughlin, Mr Brad Walker, Mrs Leigh McNeil; Mr Nathan Loh and Mrs Ann Cook for their Laboratory support, as well as Ms Narelle Higgs and Mrs Catherine McDonald for their professional and editorial assistance in the completion of this Journal. Christine Wylie Head of Department - Science

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S moking M arijuana - I s it H armless ? Mohnish Chand

Marijuana, also known as weed, pot and other slang names, is a greenish-grey mixture of the dried flowers/leaves of Cannabis sativa (Na- tional Institute on Drug Abuse for Teachers, 2018) that is usually smoked. Cannabis sativa, seen in Image 1, is a plant found in tropical and temperate areas meaning that it can be grown almost anywhere. To understand the danger of marijuana, we must understand how the human brain functions. The brain consists of millions of nerve cells (neurons) which send electrical messages from the brain and deliver information and/or stimulate parts of the body to perform certain actions. Neurons are distanced from each other, so chemicals called neurotransmitters help transmit these messages between each neuron (synapse). However, drugs such as marijuana alter the way the brain works. Getting ‘High’ Smoking marijuana is harmful mainly due to the way it is predominantly used. Marijuana is used by people to get ‘high’. Getting ‘high’ relies on a cannabinoid, known as delta-9- tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Cannabinoids are chemical compounds which keep our neurons firing (Pinola, 2016). When consumed, THC enters the lungs and into the bloodstream which carries the chemical to the brain and other organs (American College of Pediatricians, 2017). When reaching the brain, THC triggers a specific chemical known as dopamine. Dopamine is a rarely produced neurotransmitter chemical usually created by certain neurons located in a part of the brain called the ventral tegmental area (VTA). These VTA dopamine neurons become activated upon doing something good like exercise, achieving a goal or learning (Newton, 2009). The brain releases dopamine which creates a good sensation about these actions encouraging these actions to continue. When smoking marijuana, the THC releases dopamine unnaturally creating a fake sense of pride and over-activeness feeling. The

Abstract This document explains that smoking marijuana is harmful to Australian society. The reasons for this include marijuana causing users to become elevated and feel invincible, magnify thoughts and cause hyperfocus on these thoughts, lead to an increase in mental disorders as well as the negative social and economic factors on Australian society. Although there are some benefits from medicinal marijuana, these are fairly limited Therefore, smoking marijuana is harmful to Australian society. Introduction Marijuana, a substance originating from a seemingly harmless plant is one of the top ten most dangerous drugs to society (Lopez, 2015). Parents are constantly telling their children to eat vegetables Although children view this as unfair, it is for an important reason. Vegetables originate from plants which provide nutrients, reduce risk of disease and are essential to the body. So, how can a presumably healthy plant cause so much danger to Australian society? What is Marijuana?

Image 1: Cannabis Sativa (MedicineNet.com, 2018)

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‘high’ feeling, creates a feeling of elevation above others and invincibility altering a person’s behaviour. For example, a user may jump of tall structures or cause violent fights thinking as they view themselves as dominant over others, not considering any consequences such as injury and even death. Hence, smoking marijuana is harmful to society. Magnifying Thoughts & Hyperfocus Another reason why smoking marijuana is hazardous is also due to delta-9- tetrahydrocannibinol. THC is similar to another cannabinoid naturally generated in our brains known as anandamide, which regulates our mood, sleep, memory and appetite. This means both consuming THC and producing anandamide will enlarge these regulating effects. In turn, this magnifies thoughts and causes the brain to hyper focus on these thoughts. This is dangerous when executing complex tasks as it becomes unsafe. For example, when driving, the brain may only focus on the car’s speed and not the surrounding vehicles potentially resulting in dangerous accidents. Furthermore, a lapse in concentration as a result of THC when operating advanced machinery could result in major injuries. These instances both harm the user and endanger others and the surrounding environment. Clearly, THC causes users to become hyperfocused and unaware. As a result, smoking marijuana is dangerous to our world. Mental Disorders Smoking marijuana is hazardous to our society as it causes mental disorders. According to scientific studies, people who are dependent on marijuana frequently experience other mental disorders (American College of Pediatricians, 2017). These illnesses include anxiety, depres- sion, personality disorders and a lack of motiva- tion to engage in rewarding activities. More precisely, according to Graph 1 and Table 1, 24% of the population who use marijuana

develop mania, a disorder associated with periods of excessive euphoria and over-activity. That is eight times the amount the general population suffers from mania (3%). Moreover, 20% of users suffer from dysthymia, a mild depression, compared to 4% of the general population. In addition, marijuana usage is associated with a sevenfold increase in the risk of depression for users compared to the standard population and ninefold when used with other drugs (American College of Pediatricians, 2017). Marijuana may also cause psychosis whereby the user experiences false perceptions of things are non-existent, known as hallucina- tions, as well as delusions and paranoia. Regular marijuana usage, increases the risk of another disorder known as schizophrenia, continuous psychosis. It is certainly evident that marijuana usage is linked to an increase in mental disor- ders among users. Thus, marijuana poses a threat to our society.

Graph 1: Mental Disorders (American College of Pediatricians, 2017)

Social Factor Marijuana usage poses a major social threat to Australian society. This is because marijuana causes people to experience antisocial behaviour (Bates, 2016). Users are inclined to steal items from and tell lies to others. Also, the drug is linked to an increased crime rate as it prevents users from considering the consequences of their potentially illegal actions. Unfortunately,

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the crimes committed by marijuana smokers range from petty theft to more serious injuries and fatalities. Furthermore, marijuana users are associated with relationship troubles with friends and families. These conflicts often esca- late to violence and serious fights lead to inju- ries and fragmented relationships. It is clear that smoking marijuana is harmful due to the nega- tive social effects it poses on Australian society. Economic Factor Additionally, marijuana is a negative economic hindrance to society. The drug creates inactiveness in people making them unmotivated to work and unwilling to contribute to society. These users are unable to generate a sufficient income and their limited contributions also impede the economy of a country. This leads to them not being able to financially survive and living off government-owned human services that are funded by the rest of society. Essentially, the taxpayer may be paying money to financially support marijuana users. Further, there are costs involved in investigating crimes committed by marijuana users as well as treating their mental/physical health issues. These costs are again, paid for by the rest of the population through emergency services. Consequently, marijuana usage is destructive as it places an economic burden on Australian society. Medicinal Marijuana

However, although there are numerous negative impacts, there may be some instances where marijuana can be helpful. Medicinal marijuana is used to treat certain symptoms and diseases. This is because it contains a cannabinoid known as cannabidiol (CBD). CBD, unlike THC, has no psychoactive effects but helps reduce pain and muscle spasticity creating a relaxed feeling (Eisinger, 2016). This is an alternative for pain relief to medical patients experiencing agony. Also, CBD can help fight cancer. In 2011, researchers discovered that CBD induces cell death in breast cancer cells assisting in fighting of breast cancer. Unfortunately, the prevalence of CBD in marijuana is far lower than THC meaning that the drug is more hazardous rather than medicinally beneficial. Conclusion In conclusion, smoking marijuana is undeniably harmful. Marijuana contains THC which causes dopamine production. Users feel ‘high’ and invincible leading to them performing dangerous, illegal actions that harm others. Also, consuming THC whilst producing anandamide results in enlarged thoughts and hyperfocusing on a singular thing leading to complex tasks becoming unsafe. Marijuana also leads to the development of mental disorders in users. Marijuana usage also hinders Australian society as it creates anti-social behaviour and increased crime rate as well as impeding a country’s economy and increasing costs in emergency services. On the contrary, marijuana can be used for medicinal purposes however the benefits are fairly minimal. Therefore, smoking marijuana is currently more harmful than beneficial to Australian society. Appendix

Image 2: Medicinal Marijuana (Kedmey, 2015)

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Bibliography Alcohol & Drug Abuse Institute, 2013. What is Cannabis . [Online] Available at: http://learnaboutmarijuanawa.org/ factsheets/whatiscannabis.htm [Accessed 28 February 2018]. American College of Pediatricians, 2017. Mari- juana Use: Detrimental to Youth . [Online] Available at: https://www.acpeds.org/marijuana- use-detrimental-to-youth [Accessed 28 February 2018]. Bates, D., 2016. People who smoke a lot of can- nabis in their youth are ‘more antisocial, violent and less educated’ in their 30s than non-smok- ers. DailyMail Australia , 1(1), p. 1. Chand, N., 2018. Biology - Semester 1 Research Assignment [Interview] (28 February 2018). Chand, S., 2018. Biology - Semester 1 Research Assignment [Interview] (24 February 2018). Eisinger, A., 2016. Here’s What Actually Hap- pens When You Smoke Weed. Greatist , 1(1), p. 1. Kedmey, D., 2015. Teens Don’t Smoke More Pot After Medical Marijuana Laws Passed, Study Finds. Time , 1(1), p. 1. Lopez, G., 2015. How scientists rank drugs from most to least dangerous - and why the rankings are flawed. Vox.com , 1(1), p. 1. MedicineNet.com, 2018. Marijuana . [Online] Available at: https://www.medicinenet.com/ marijuana/article.htm [Accessed 28 February 2018]. myDr, 2012. Cannabis: what is it? , s.l.: Austra- lian Drug Foundation. National Institute on Drug Abuse for Teachers, 2018. Where Does Marijuana Come From? . [Online] Available at: https://teens.drugabuse.gov/teach- ers/mind-over-matter/marijuana/where-does-

marijuana-come-from [Accessed 28 February 2018]. Natural Food Benefits, 2018. Benefits of Veg- etables . [Online] Available at: http://www.naturalfoodbenefits. com/list.php?CAT=2 [Accessed 28 February 2018]. Newton, P., 2009. What is dopamine?. Psychol- ogy Today , 1(1), p. 1. Pinola, M., 2016. What Marijuana Actually Does To Your Brain And Body . lifehacker, 1(1), p. 1. Quora, 2016. What is the meaning of getting high in scientific terms?. [Online] Available at: https://www.quora.com/What-is- the-meaning-of-getting-high-in-scientific-terms [Accessed 28 February 2018]. Santos, G., 2015. 10 Ways to Increase Dopa- mine to Boost Productivity. endlessevents , 1(1), p. 1. Silverman, J., 2009. How Medical Marijuana Works , s.l.: howstuffworks. Staff, L. S., 2012. What’s the Difference Be- tween a Fruit and a Vegetable?. Live Science , 1(1), p. 1. Wikipedia, 2018. Dopamine . [Online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do- pamine [Accessed 24 February 2018].

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E very K O ver is a K iller Jenna Goldie

cause accidents, a vast majority are speeding- induced. ‘The risks of involvement in a casualty double with each 5km/hr increase in speed above 60km/h’, further justifying that ‘a 5km/h reduction in speed can lead to at least 15% decrease in crashes’ (TAC Campaign, 2013). The data in [Appendix 1] authenticates that almost half (48.5%) of the average fatalities from 2010-2015 occurred when cars were travelling in the fastest speed category provided (100-110km/h). Similar patterns are evident throughout the table, an abundance of deaths located in faster factions, indicating that higher speeds means increased danger. Reasons that speed so prominently impacts road statistics include: inertia, reaction time/braking distance, deceleration/impact speed, and energy. Inertia Inertia correlates with speed, particularly during crashes. When cars brake steadily, forces work to eventually bring them to a stop. These forces also act on passengers, gradually slowing their movement. However, if cars were to brake unexpectedly/ abruptly, insufficient time is allocated for this counteracting force to function. Newton’s first law of motion states that an object in motion continues in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force (TeacherTech, 2015), meaning that the passenger will continue at the same speed until a force (i.e.: seatbelt/windshield) stops them. Although higher speeds do not directly imply more inertia (inertia relies solely on mass), slower speeds are effective in reducing damage, with less force required to slow the person. Overall, inertia is significant in explaining the movement of passengers during a collision, and how speed does not directly affect this, but certainly decreases the severity of a crash, thus relating to the claim that ‘every K over is a killer’.

Abstract This research essay explores the effect that speed has on Australia’s road statistics. By ex- pounding on concepts including speed, reaction time and braking distance, inertia, deceleration and impact speed, as well as energy, the claim stating, “Every K over is a Killer” is justified correct, as speed is one of the major contribut- ing factors to the number of road accidents each year. Two factors, environmental and technolog- ical, are also analysed, going into detail regard- ing the physics behind both facets and how they also relate to road safety. “Why is speed such a significant factor in our road statistics?” Introduction In 2001, the movement, ‘Every K over is a Killer’; run by Queensland Transport to raise awareness about speeding was established. The campaign was supported by the physics behind ‘why [speed is] such a significant factor to our road statistics,’ analysing the information behind road accidents. Speed limits play a major role in the safety of our roads; however those who defy these parameters put themselves, and others in increased levels of danger. This research essay determines exactly how much danger speeders are causing. Physical Concepts & Evidence Speed & Speeding Speed significantly contributes to Australia’s road statistics. Although other factors can

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Reaction & Braking Distance Moreover, increased speed produces greater braking distances, on top of reaction distance. Speed limits are provided to prevent crashes, ensuring drivers enough time to respond/stop. Some people choose to disobey these rules, putting themselves, and surrounding people in danger. [Appendix 2] shows the consequences amid travelling at faster speeds. The two cars share like properties, however, the green car is travelling at 60km/h whilst the purple is 5km/h faster. If they happened to encounter the same hindrance ahead, the purple car would travel 2.1m further before applying the brakes (same reaction time – 1.5s: average of drivers). Although this distance seems negligible, with additional factors, it becomes crucial. After the brakes are applied, the car must then decelerate before reaching the obstacle. When moving at 60km/h, the car travels 38.9m, whereas the car travelling at 65km/h travels an extra 4.5m before stopping (The Physics Classroom , 2017). This validates that even a meagre reduction of pace dramatically minimises the risk of harm. Deceleration & Impact Speed Moreover, speeding has plausible effects on deceleration/impact speed. After activating the brakes, if the car cannot come to a complete stop before crashing, the masses will collide at the ‘impact speed’. Increased speed influences lengthier deceleration times, hence higher impact speeds. [Appendix 3] analyses how this has life-changing implications. If a car travels at 50km/h, there is enough time to decelerate before coming striking (i.e.:) a wall 45m away. Contrarily, when travelling at 80km/h, it takes almost 70m for a car to stop, by which it would have already hit the wall at 66km/h. From this, it is deduced that higher speeds suggest increased danger, as less time is obtainable to decelerate, hence, higher impact speeds.

Energy The final significant physical notion is energy. The main energy-type involved with cars is kinetic energy. When a car collides with a wall, the Law of Conservation of Energy claims that energy cannot be created/destroyed, only transformed from one form to another. This means that kinetic energy from a car’s motion is converted into heat/sound during a crash. At higher speeds, more kinetic energy is converted, thus increasing the damage. [Appendix 4] shows the formula for kinetic energy and an example of why high speeds are perilous in crashes. The 2.5KJ difference between 50ms -1 -velocity variations highlights the influence of speed on the severity of a crash. This information further establishes that driving slower means less energy in a crash and thus, less destruction. Environmental and Technological Factors Environmental Factors Forces support the physics behind environmental factors in relation to road-safety. Cars rely on forces to move/stop. One of the most significant forces, friction, occurs between car tyres and the road. Weather has large effects on the amount of friction produced, creating various hazards. In 2004, 15% of road-related accidents in NSW were caused by wet-weather (Rowland et al., 2010). After rainstorms, thin layers of water cover the surfaces of roads, decreasing resistance. This makes driving in wet-weather dangerous, declaring why cautious speeds are recommended. It is scientifically proven that wet-ness doubles stopping distances whilst icy conditions decuples this (Driving Test Success, 2018). From this, two perilous situations can ensue: aquaplaning/skidding. Both are recognised for causing numerous accidents. Aquaplaning occurs when a build- up of water between the road/surface of the car tyres results in lost contact between the two surfaces/loss of control of the vehicle. Skidding happens when tyres slip, but some traction is

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kept. It is also challenging to control a car in this position (QLD Government, 2013). Overall, supporting physics proves that driving slower minimises the possibility of harm. Technological Factors Through technology, our roads/car-safety has increased drastically. The airbag is a utility embedded into all modern cars. ‘They are designed to supplement seatbelt restraints and help distribute the load exerted in a human body during an accident to minimise the deceleration rate and likelihood of injury’ (Pearly Huffman, 2011), advocating that its role is to deploy when the car suddenly halts. Hitting airbags as opposed to steering-wheels/dashboards/ windshields reduces the chance of injury, and also slows the passengers’ momentum (caused by inertia). This physical notion is impulse – product of force and time. An object with 100 units-of-momentum must experience equal impulse to stop. [Appendix 5] exhibits various combinations of time and force that produce 100 units-of-impulse. This data proves, ‘the greater time over which the collision occurs, the smaller the force acting upon the object’ (The Physics Classroom, 2017). The link this establishes to airbags is; they increase the time for passengers to stop, thus decreasing the amount of force encountered. This is one of the many examples where physics minimises risks/prevents harm. Conclusion It is patent, through analysing road statistics/ data, and expounding on physical concepts behind roads, that speed has major implications in safety/harm-reduction of transport. By discussing environmental and technological factors, the influence and importance of physics in everyday life is illuminated. Finally, after evaluating data/evidence, numerous reasons for why speed is a key factor in our road statistics are proposed, thus justifying the claim, ‘Every K Over is a Killer’. Speeding is a crime that

puts the driver in jeopardy, together with everyone nearby. By driving just a little slower, who knows how many lives could be saved! Appendices Appendix 1 Appendices

Appendix 2

Appendix 3

Appendix 4

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Safety/Transport-and-road-statistics/Road-safe- ty-statistics.aspx [Accessed 17 February 2018]. QLD Government, 2013. Road safety during wet weather . [Online] Available at: https://www. qld.gov.au/transport/safety/road-safety/wet- weather [Accessed 24 February 2018]. Richards, K., Tregenza, K. & Kirby, L., 2005. Every K Over is a Killer: Behind the Scenes. Rowland, B., Davey, J., Freeman, J. & Darren, W., 2010. Road transport sensitivities to weath- er and climate change in Australia . [Online] Available at: http://atrf.info/papers/2007/2007_ Rowland_Davey_Freeman_Wishart.pdf [Ac- cessed 24 February 2018]. TAC Campaign, 2013. Speed statistics . [Online] Available at: http://www.tac.vic.gov.au/road- safety/statistics/summaries/speed-statistics [Ac- cessed 17 February 2018]. The Physics Classroom , 2017. Speed and Ve- locity . [Online] Available at: http://www.physic- sclassroom.com/class/1DKin/Lesson-1/Speed- and-Velocity [Accessed 17 February 2018]. The Physics Classroom, 2017. Inertia and Mass . [Online] Available at: http://www.physicsclass- room.com/class/newtlaws/Lesson-1/Inertia-and- Mass [Accessed 18 February 2018]. The Physics Classroom, 2017. Real-World Ap- plications . [Online] Available at: http://www. physicsclassroom.com/class/momentum/Les- son-1/Real-World-Applications [Accessed 25 February 2018]. TeacherTech, 2015. First Law of Motion . [Online] Available at: http://teachertech.rice. edu/Participants/louviere/Newton/law1.html [Accessed 04 March 2018].

Appendix 4

Bibliography Anon., 2016. Inertia . [Online] Available at: https://physics.tutorvista.com/motion/inertia. html [Accessed 17 February 2018]. BBC, 2014. Forces and braking . [Online] Avail- able at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebite- size/science/add_aqa/forces/forcesbrakingrev1. shtml [Accessed 18 February 2018]. Driving Test Success, 2018. Stopping Distances and The Theory Test 2018 . [Online] Available at: https://www.drivingtestsuccess.com/pages/ stopping-distances-and-the-theory-test [Ac- cessed 24 February 2018]. Fletcher, N., 2016. The physics of speeding cars . [Online] Available at: https://www.science.org. au/curious/technology-future/physics-speeding- cars [Accessed 18 February 2018]. Littell, M., 2006. McDougal Littell Science: Focus on Physical Sciences. California, USA: Littell, McDougal. Available at: http://www. classzone.com/vpg_ebooks/ml_sci_gr8/acces- sibility/ml_sci_gr8/page_47.pdf. Pearly Huffman, J., 2011. The Physics Of: Airbags . [Online] Availalble at: https://www. caranddriver.com/features/the-physics-of-air- bags-feature [Accessed 25 February 2018]. QLD Gov., 2016. 2015 Summary Road Crash Report. QLD Gov., 2017. Road safety statistics . [On- line] Available at: https://www.tmr.qld.gov.au/

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B ehind the M arijuana S moke S creen James Guy

The drug marijuana comes from leaves of the plant Cannabis sativa. “Marijuana plants produce chemical compounds called cannabinoids” (Eisinger, 2016). The most psychoactive compound in marijuana is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Smoking marijuana causes THC to enter the bloodstream and effect the brain. Here, THC “acts on specific receptors in the brain, called cannabinoid receptors” (Anderson, 2017). Cannabinoid receptors are all around the body, however are most numerous in particular parts of the brain. The cerebellum (controlling co-ordination), basal ganglia (reaction time) and limbic system (memory and behaviour) are heavily concentrated with these cannabinoid receptors (Scholastic, 2011).

Abstract With marijuana use in Australia becoming more and more widespread, the implications for society are becoming more prevalent. The drug affects parts of the brain crucial for body functions and performance, by interfering with communication between the brain’s neurons. Use of the drug is posing a threat to society, with marijuana-induced violence, hospitalisations and dangerous driving some of the impacts. In the long term, mental health issues are becoming more common, with the increasing risk of marijuana use. Use and legalisation of the drug in Australia is influenced by social and economic factors, however overall, the severe implications of this drug’s use makes it extremely harmful to society. Use of the illicit drug cannabis (marijuana) has severe implications for users’ health and society as a whole. Nevertheless, the use of marijuana has become very widespread around Australia, with “16 per cent of students aged between 12 and 17 years ever using cannabis” (Australian Government, 2017). This is posing a threat not only to the mental and physical health of users, but also to broader society. As marijuana use has become more common, there has been a dramatic increase in hospitalisations, violence and long-term mental health illnesses in society. The implications of marijuana use makes the substance extremely harmful for the individual and Australian society.

Diagram 1: Brain with labels of parts with a high concentration of cannabinoid receptors. Sourced from: (Bonsor & Gerbis, 2001)

The impact smoking marijuana has on the brain is interpreted by the user as a ‘high’ feeling, while THC also “increases dopamine levels, creating that sense of euphoria” (Eisinger, 2016). However, this is extremely harmful to the brain and body. Diagram 1 displays the parts of the brain heavily concentrated with cannabinoid receptors. They are all located in either the hindbrain or midbrain, thus meaning damage

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caused by long-term marijuana use will affect the body’s vital systems. The adverse impact on the brain – the organ that controls virtually every body system and movement in the body – shows how harmful marijuana is (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2007). Marijuana’s effect on the brain is devastat- ing, due to its effect on the brain’s microscopic neurons. Neurons work by transmitting signals between one another, after being exposed to a stimulus. The signals, which sensory neurons send to motor neurons via relay neurons, are called neurotransmitters. These neurotransmit- ters travel across the synaptic cleft (gap between the neurons) and are released by one neuron, to be received by receptors on the other neuron (Cherry, 2017). A receptor antagonist “prevents a neurotransmitter from binding to the recep- tor” (In The Know, 2011). The THC found in marijuana acts as a receptor antagonist, meaning the ability for neurons in the cerebellum, basal ganglia and limbic system to communicate is adversely affected, thus impairing the nervous system (In The Know, 2011). Continued use of marijuana can cause permanent damage to these parts of the brain, thus causing damage to the person’s body systems and function. Marijuana users pose a great risk to Australian society. The effect of THC on the hindbrain and midbrain forces the body’s memory, brain function, co-ordination and reactions to be impaired, thus leading to dangerous driving, violence, hallucinations and addiction (Foundation for a Drug-Free World, 2016). A study conducted in Cambridge showed that 4.4% of regular marijuana users were reported to display frequent violent behaviour, in comparison to 0.3% of non-marijuana users. This was believed to be due to the impact of marijuana on the brain (Fields, 2016). With those who smoke marijuana 10 times more likely to be violent based on these statistics, marijuna is extremely harmful to individual’s

behaviour. Whilst illegal, the punishment for people caught using marijuana is relatively lenient. Australian punishment for cannabis possession is a small fine, ranging from $50 to $150 (SBS News, 2015). Punishments should be made more severe, in order to deter users and lessen the implications for Australian society.

Graph 1: Total emergency department visits to hospitals in Central Oregon, U.S.A, with a cannabis diagnosis. Sourced from: (Hawryluk, 2016) In spite of the research detailing marijuana’s harmful effects, there remain worrying trends of marijuana use. Graph 1 shows a clear trend towards more emergency department visits with a cannabis diagnosis. From the start of 2010 to mid-2014, there were less than 100 visits per month, however this figure grows to around 200 visits per month from mid-2014 to the end of 2015 and 400 in the early months of 2016. The number of visits peak at nearly 700 in August 2016 (Hawryluk, 2016). As the number of emergency visits with a cannabis diagnosis increases, the burden of marijuana users on the health system also increases. A growing number of emergency department visits is caused by the increasing number of marijuana smokers, as seen in Graph 2. In Australia, the percentage of the adult (over 14 years old) population using an illicit drug has steadily increased by a total of 2.2% from 2007 to 2016 (SA Health, 2016). As marijuana is the most accessible drug in Austra- lia, it accounts for the majority of these percent- ages (Australian Seedbank, 2016). This means that harm caused by marijuana use is becoming more prevalent in society, thus emphasising the implications.

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There is also evidence to suggest mental illnes- sess are more common for marijuana users. According to the UK’s Royal College of Psy- chiatrists, regular use of marijuana “doubles the risk of developing a psychotic episode or long- term scizophrenia”. Users are also more likely to develop depression and anxiety. Physical health impacts, such as respiritory and circula- tory issues, are also common, due to regular marijuana use (Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2017). These physical and mental health issues add to the consequences of marijuana use, increasing users’ threat to society.

Graph 2: Percentage of Australians aged 14 and over who used an illicit substance at least once in the year. Sourced from: (SA Health, 2016) Worsening the harmful impacts of smoking marijuana, THC concentration of the drug has increased. Graph 3 shows that since 1960, there has been a steady increase in the THC percentage of marijuana, as technology has been developed. From very close to 0% THC in 1960 marijuana, the percentage has increased dramatically to 20% in 2015. As THC is the chemical responsible for the impacts on the brain, a greater concentration of THC in marijuana would emphasise the adverse effects of the drug’s use. This causes more implications for society, such as hospitalisations and dangerous driving. According to several extensive European studies, “drivers with THC in their blood were roughly twice as likely to be culpable for a fatal crash than drivers who had not used drugs or alcohol” (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2018). Dangerous driving, caused by co-ordination and reaction time impairment after smoking marijuana, is another implication for Australian society, as more innocent people are injured and killed on Australian roads. These statistics give a clear message on the dangers of marijuana use.

Graph 3: Percentage THC in marijuana from 1960 to 2015. Sourced from: (Foundation for a Drug-Free World, 2016)

Marijuana is influenced by social and economic factors. In order to reduce the threat of marijuana on society, action must be taken to ease the social pressure on teenagers. In a study that asked marijuana-smoking teenagers why they began taking the substance, “55% replied that it was due to pressure from their friends” (Foundation for a Drug-Free World, 2016). The myth that marijuana use is harmless is the major culprit for this. Even with powerful statistics and evidence to suggest marijuana use has severe implications for individuals’ physical and mental health, this myth is pivotal in forcing pressure on teenagers to begin smoking the drug. Given the highly addictive nature of THC, once users have tried marijuana,

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Bibliography Anderson, L., 2017. Marijuana: Effects, Medical Uses and Legalization. [Online] Available at: https://www.drugs.com/illicit/ marijuana.html [Accessed 11 February 2018]. Australian Government, 2012. Smoking - A Leading Cause of Death. [Online] Available at: www.quitnow.gov.au/internet/ quitnow/publishing.nsf/Content/warnings-graph [Accessed 27 February 2018]. Australian Government, 2017. Drug trends and statistics. [Online] Available at: https://campaigns.health.gov.au/ drughelp/drug-trends-and-statistics [Accessed 8 February 2018]. Australian Seedbank, 2016. Australian Cannabis Statistics. [Online] Available at: https://www.australianseedbank. com/australian-cannabis-statistics/ [Accessed 28 February 2018]. Bonsor, K. & Gerbis, N., 2001. How Marijuana Works. [Online] Available at: https://science.howstuffworks.com/ marijuana3.htm [Accessed 14 February 2017]. Cherry, K., 2017. Identifying a Neurotransmitter. [Online] Available at: https://www.verywellmind.com/ what-is-a-neurotransmitter-2795394 [Accessed 11 February 2018]. Eisinger, A., 2016. Here’s What Actually Happens When You Smoke Weed. [Online] Available at: https://greatist.com/health/your- brain-on-marijuana [Accessed 28 February 2018]. Fields, D., 2016. Marijuana Use Increases Violent Behavior. [Online] Available at: https://www.psychologytoday.

they generally continue to use it, ignorant to the health consequences (Melemis, 2018). The consequence of the incorrect belief that smoking marijuana is harmless leads to the social pressure faced by teenagers to begin smoking the drug. If these people knew the statistics and research into the adverse effects of the drug, it is likely some of these drug users would never have begun. There are also economic consequences from the belief that marijuana is harmless. With some evidence suggesting the use of marijuana may be as ‘harmless’ as tobacco (a legal drug), there is a push to legalise recreational marijuana in Australia, mirroring several U.S states (SBS News, 2016). Whilst the effects are similar, both drugs are harmful for the smoker’s health. Smoking tobacco is one of the leading causes of death in Australia, with “a tobacco-related death about every 28 minutes” (Australian Government, 2012). For the government however, legalising marijuana could be appealing, due to potential economic benefits. Similarly to tobacco, legalising marijuana for recreational use would result in money earnt through taxes. In Colorado, U.S.A, the decision to legalise recreational marijuana “brought in more than $270 million in the first quarter of 2016 alone” (Koslow, 2016). The economic consequence of the claim could encourage the government to legalise marijuana in Australia, bringing severe implications for society. Marijuana has major physical and mental health implications. The THC content of the drug interferes with communication between vital neurons in the body, with prolonged use leading to permanent damage and mental health issues. Impacted by social and economic factors, marijuana and its’ use in Australia has led to significant debate. However, the extremely harmful nature of the substance makes it a threat to Australian society.

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com/blog/the-new-brain/201603/marijuana-use- increases-violent-behavior [Accessed 27 February 2018]. Foundation for a Drug-Free World, 2016. The Truth About Marijuana. [Online] Available at: http://f.edgesuite.net/data/www. drugfreeworld.org/files/truth-about-marijuana- booklet-en.pdf?_=yu69md0y [Accessed 13 February 2018]. Hawryluk, M., 2016. Mainstreaming marijuana. [Online] Available at: www.bendbulletin.com/health/ pulse/4718634-151/mainstreaming-marijuana [Accessed 14 February 2018]. In The Know, 2011. Marijuana in the Brain. [Online] Available at: www.intheknowzone.com/ substance-abuse-topics/marijuana/marijuana-in- the-brain.html [Accessed 11 February 2018]. Koslow, T., 2016. Cannabis By The Numbers: How Much Money Will States Bring in From Marijuana in 2016?. [Online] Available at: https://merryjane.com/news/ cannabis-by-the-numbers-how-much-money- will-states-bring-in-from-marijuana-in-2016 [Accessed 18 February 2018]. Melemis, S. M., 2018. Marijuana. [Online] Available at: https://addictionsandrecovery.org/ marijuana.htm [Accessed 27 February 2018]. National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2007. Bringing the Power of Science to Bear on Drug Abuse and Addiction. [Online] Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/ publications/teaching-packets/power-science/ section-i/2-brain-most-complex-organ-in-body [Accessed 27 February 2018]. National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2018. Does

marijuana use affect driving?. [Online] Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/ publications/research-reports/marijuana/does- marijuana-use-affect-driving [Accessed 14 February 2018]. Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2017. Cannabis and mental health. [Online] Available at: www.rcpsych.ac.uk/healthadvice/ problemsdisorders/cannabis.aspx [Accessed 14 February 2018]. SA Health, 2016. Drug statistics. [Online] Available at: www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/ wps/wcm/connect/135049004f780238af 87ffc4163822ed/Recent+use+of+any+illi cit+drug+2001-2016+web.pdf?MOD=AJ PERES&CACHEID=ROOTWORKSPA CE-135049004f780238af87ffc4163822ed- m41qWmb [Accessed 28 February 2018]. SBS News, 2015. Factbox: Cannabis laws in Australia. [Online] Available at: https://www.sbs.com.au/news/ factbox-cannabis-laws-in-australia [Accessed 13 February 2018]. SBS News, 2016. How close are we to marijuana legalisation in Australia?. [Online] Available at: https://www.sbs.com.au/guide/ article/2016/12/02/how-close-are-we-marijuana- legalisation-australia [Accessed 18 February 2018]. Scholastic, 2011. The Science of Marijuana: How THC Affects the Brain. [Online] Available at: http://headsup.scholastic.com/ students/the-science-of-marijuana [Accessed 11 February 2018].

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S peeding K ills Marcus Ibsen

factor in our road statistics’ will discuss the physical concepts and evidence related to speed- ing and the outcomes from this. A discussion of both environmental and technological factors is made to prove their influence on the ability of physics to address the issue of speed related ac- cidents. Physical Concepts Kinetic Energy A force is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object. A force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity, in other words to accelerate or decelerate. The force in which all moving vehicles experience is kinetic energy – energy of motion. Similar to potential energy, kinetic energy is increased if the mass and/or speed is also increased. A for- mula can express this relationship; as seen in the following: KE = 1 / 2 mv 2 where m = mass and v = velocity. (Nice, 2018) Contrary to perceived outcomes, kinetic energy increases with velocity squared. If for example an object is moving twice its original speed, then the kinetic energy is four times greater (Nice, 2018). Because of this, a vehicle acceler- ating from 0-5ms -1 can do so faster than a ve- hicle accelerating from 20-25ms -1 . This can be identified in the following calculations: 0-5ms -1 KE = ( 1 / 2 m X 5 2 ) - ( 1 / 2 m X 0 2 ) KE = 25 J 20-25ms -1 KE = ( 1 / 2 m X 25 2 ) - ( 1 / 2 m X 20 2 ) KE = 2 25 J When comparing the two results, the kinetic en- ergy needed to travel from 20-25ms -1 is , where- as the kinetic energy needed to travel from 0-5ms -1 is . Thus, objects traveling at higher speeds see exponential increases in kinetic en- ergy. When implementing this relationship into crash

Abstract In our current modern society, humans have become heavily dependent on vehicles to cope with daily transportation and commuting de- mand. Although this freedom is hugely benefi- cial for most, a challenge faced among all driv- ers has developed as a result of this – common- ly known as ‘speeding’. Due to the relationship between kinetic energy and reaction/braking distance, speeding causes fatalities for many. Moreover, weather and road surface conditions prove to amplify the outcomes experienced during vehicle accidents. Because of this, tech- nological developments have been made and enforced to all vehicles to reduce injury sever- ity among passengers. Introduction In current society, large improvements to pro- ductivity and efficiency have been made due to developments in urban lifestyle. As a result of this, daily commuting on roads has become a norm of life for most. However, a consequence of this freedom is being exploited, leading many to beg the question ‘every K over is a killer’. Research into ‘why is speed such a significant

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statistics, the results seen become clear. Due to higher kinetic energy seen in faster moving ve- hicles, the ability for more energy to be trans- ferred onto other objects is increased – high- speed collisions > fender bender (Trefil/Hazen, 2010). Appendix One shows this, whereby the results show a correlation between speed and percentage of fatality. 2015 saw a fatality per- centage of 8.8% between the speed limits of 0-50km/h. In comparison, collisions at speed limits of 100-110km/h saw a 44.6% (near half) fatality percentage in which represents a dra- matic increase. With an increase of c.507%, these statistics highlight how increased speeds cause fatalities from a squared exponential in- crease in kinetic energy – more energy to trans- fer onto other objects. Moreover, these statistics are supported in Ap- pendix Six whereby the relationship between the degree of crash for both 50km/h and 100km/h promote the kinetic energy relationship dis- cussed. The percentage of fatalities to total crashes for both 50km/h and 100km/h are calcu- lated in Appendix Three. These percentages show how the likelihood of a more damaging accident to occur is greater at 100km/h (5.09% fatal) when opposed to acci- dents at 50km/h (0.87% fatal). From the infor- mation analysed in both appendixes, the conclu- sion can be made that increased kinetic energy at higher speeds result in more damaging colli- sions. Reaction and Braking Distance In addition to the exertion of kinetic energy, a person’s reaction time can significantly affect the speed in which a collision is experienced. The outcome of an accident can be improved through reacting to the hazard and braking. However, with increased speeds the distance in travelled in the same reaction time is greater. Thus, the braking distance (45m before object)

has diminished. Appendix Four calculates the approximate reaction time used for results illus- trated in Appendix Two. Using this approximate reaction time, Appendix Two shows this trend. At 50km/h, the reaction distance is c.21m, in which provides sufficient distance for braking to bring a vehicle to a complete stop (0km/h). However, reaction distance increases at a linear rate, with an additional 2m for every 5km/h in- crease in speed. Because of this, reaction dis- tance at 80km/h is c.13m greater (34m total) than that at 50km/h. As stated, diminishing re- turns are seen with braking distance decreasing, and at 80km/h, well past the distance needed to stop (colliding with object at 66km/h). Moreover, braking distance increases at higher speeds, seeing greater velocity on collision. Ap- pendix Two shows this trend, whereby incre- mental increases in speed by 5km/h sees a cubed exponential trend in braking distance, due to higher kinetic energy. At 50km/h, braking dis- tance is 14m, while at 80km/h braking distance is c.35m. This 30km/h increase in speed sees braking distance more than double. When ac- counting for both reaction and braking distance, the likelihood of a fatal collision dramatically upsurges at higher speeds due to impact velocity being greater (e.g. 66km/h when travelling 80km/h). As can be seen, the physical concepts leading to the claim show how higher speeds ultimately correlate to more damaging accidents – an out- come caused by speeding. Factors Environmental Factors and Friction Concept When applying the claim into a real-world sce- nario, certain factors begin to influence the abil- ity of physics to address the issue of speed re- lated accidents – in particular environmental factors. Factors such as weather conditions and road surfaces influence an outcome of speeding.

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